La etiología del asma es compleja y multifactorial. Las características asociadas con el asma incluyen síntomas episódicos, sibilancias confirmadas por un profesional de salud, variabilidad diurna y antecedentes de atopia.[1]Global Initiative for Asthma. 2024 Global strategy for asthma management and prevention. May 2024 [internet publication].
https://ginasthma.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/GINA-2024-Strategy-Report-24_05_22_WMS.pdf
[8]British Thoracic Society. British guideline on the management of asthma. Jul 2019 [internet publication].
https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/asthma
Varias exposiciones prenatales y posnatales tempranas se asocian con el asma infantil. Tanto la exposición intrauterina como la posnatal al humo del tabaco son importantes factores de riesgo etiológicos contribuyentes.[9]Thacher JD, Gehring U, Gruzieva O, et al. Maternal smoking during pregnancy and early childhood and development of asthma and rhinoconjunctivitis - a MeDALL project. Environ Health Perspect. 2018 Apr 12;126(4):047005.
https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/10.1289/EHP2738
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29664587?tool=bestpractice.com
La exposición intrauterina a la vitamina D y a la contaminación del aire, junto con el microbioma materno e infantil (incluida la exposición a antibióticos), también puede contribuir al asma infantil.[10]Alcazar CG, Paes VM, Shao Y, et al. The association between early-life gut microbiota and childhood respiratory diseases: a systematic review. Lancet Microbe. 2022 Nov;3(11):e867-80.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35988549?tool=bestpractice.com
[11]Hehua Z, Qing C, Shanyan G, et al. The impact of prenatal exposure to air pollution on childhood wheezing and asthma: A systematic review. Environ Res. 2017 Nov;159:519-30.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0013935117313841
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28888196?tool=bestpractice.com
[12]McKenzie C, Tan J, Macia L, et al. The nutrition-gut microbiome-physiology axis and allergic diseases. Immunol Rev. 2017 Jul;278(1):277-95.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28658542?tool=bestpractice.com
[13]Sobczak M, Pawliczak R. Relationship between vitamin D and asthma from gestational to adulthood period: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. BMC Pulm Med. 2023 Jun 17;23(1):212.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37330474?tool=bestpractice.com
[14]Wang L, Hu X, Xiang C. Does the timing of antibiotic exposure in pregnancy impact the risk of development of pediatric asthma?: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Asthma. 2023 May;60(5):856-67.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35849144?tool=bestpractice.com
[15]Brustad N, Chawes B. Vitamin D primary prevention of respiratory infections and asthma in early childhood: evidence and mechanisms. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2024 Feb 14;S2213-2198(24)00161-2.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/38360214?tool=bestpractice.com
El parto prematuro, el bajo peso al nacer y la displasia broncopulmonar se asocian con sibilancias y asma en la infancia.[16]Sun T, Yu HY, Yang M, et al. Risk of asthma in preterm infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. World J Pediatr. 2023 Jun;19(6):549-56.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36857022?tool=bestpractice.com
[17]Been JV, Lugtenberg MJ, Smets E, et al. Preterm birth and childhood wheezing disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med. 2014 Jan;11(1):e1001596.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24492409?tool=bestpractice.com
[18]Grandinetti R, Fainardi V, Caffarelli C, et al. Risk factors affecting development and persistence of preschool wheezing: consensus document of the Emilia-Romagna Asthma (ERA) Study Group. J Clin Med. 2022 Nov 4;11(21):6558.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36362786?tool=bestpractice.com
Los estudios de gemelos estiman que la genética explica hasta el 75% de la varianza en el riesgo.[19]Koppelman GH, Los H, Postma DS. Genetic and environment in asthma: the answer of twin studies. Eur Respir J. 1999 Jan;13(1):2-4.
http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/13/1/2.full.pdf+html
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10836314?tool=bestpractice.com
Múltiples polimorfismos genéticos se han asociado con el desarrollo del asma infantil.[20]Fan Z, Liu T, Na W. Association of nitric oxide synthase gene polymorphism with asthma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Respir J. 2023 Jun;17(6):516-26.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37076778?tool=bestpractice.com
[21]Aarafi H, Yadegari A, Dastgheib SA, et al. Association of +1923C > T, -1112C > T and +2044A > G polymorphisms in IL-13 gene with susceptibility to pediatric asthma: a systematic peview and meta-analysis. Fetal Pediatr Pathol. 2022 Apr;41(2):259-77.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32643534?tool=bestpractice.com
[22]Ruan Z, Shi Z, Zhang G, et al. Asthma susceptible genes in children: a meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2020 Nov 6;99(45):e23051.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33157959?tool=bestpractice.com
[23]Chen X, Hu J, Li K, et al. Association of the IL-4R Q576R polymorphism with pediatric asthma: a meta-analysis. Afr Health Sci. 2022 Sep;22(3):307-16.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36910341?tool=bestpractice.com
Es probable que los genes ejerzan sus efectos al interactuar con exposiciones ambientales, como alérgenos e infecciones virales, en la primera infancia.[18]Grandinetti R, Fainardi V, Caffarelli C, et al. Risk factors affecting development and persistence of preschool wheezing: consensus document of the Emilia-Romagna Asthma (ERA) Study Group. J Clin Med. 2022 Nov 4;11(21):6558.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36362786?tool=bestpractice.com
[24]Sears MR, Greene JM, Willan AR, et al. A longitudinal, population-based, cohort study of childhood asthma followed to adulthood. N Engl J Med. 2003 Oct 9;349(15):1414-22.
https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa022363#t=article
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14534334?tool=bestpractice.com
La enfermedad atópica (p. ej., eccema, dermatitis atópica, rinitis alérgica y alergia alimentaria) está fuertemente asociada con el asma. El avance del eczema/dermatitis atópica a rinitis alérgica y al asma posterior se ha denominado "marcha alérgica", aunque las asociaciones temporales entre los fenotipos alérgicos pueden evolucionar a lo largo de múltiples vías.[18]Grandinetti R, Fainardi V, Caffarelli C, et al. Risk factors affecting development and persistence of preschool wheezing: consensus document of the Emilia-Romagna Asthma (ERA) Study Group. J Clin Med. 2022 Nov 4;11(21):6558.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36362786?tool=bestpractice.com
[25]Lowe AJ, Carlin JB, Bennett CM, et al. Do boys do the atopic march while girls dawdle? J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008 May;121(5):1190-5.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18313134?tool=bestpractice.com
[26]Li H, Dai T, Liu C, et al. Phenotypes of atopic dermatitis and the risk for subsequent asthma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2022 Feb;86(2):365-72.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34384834?tool=bestpractice.com
[27]Dharmage SC, Lowe AJ, Tang MLK. Revisiting the atopic march current evidence. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2022 Oct 15;206(8):925-6.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35816436?tool=bestpractice.com
La exposición y sensibilización a aeroalérgenos (p. ej., ácaros del polvo o polen) y a ciertos alimentos es un factor de riesgo reconocido para desarrollar asma (p. ej., una prueba de punción cutánea positiva para ácaros del polvo o polen específico).[28]Meng Q, Nagarajan S, Son Y, et al. Asthma, oculonasal symptoms, and skin test sensitivity across National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2016 Feb;116(2):118-25.e5.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26815704?tool=bestpractice.com
Los niños menores de 5 años a menudo presentan sibilancias recurrentes debido a infecciones frecuentes de las vías respiratorias altas (URTI, por sus siglas en inglés).[1]Global Initiative for Asthma. 2024 Global strategy for asthma management and prevention. May 2024 [internet publication].
https://ginasthma.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/GINA-2024-Strategy-Report-24_05_22_WMS.pdf
[29]Wadhwa V, Lodge CJ, Dharmage SC, et al. The association of early life viral respiratory illness and atopy on asthma in children: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2020 Sep;8(8):2663-72.e7.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32298852?tool=bestpractice.com
Las infecciones de las vías respiratorias altas y las infecciones de las vías respiratorias bajas en los primeros años de vida aumentan el riesgo de asma posterior, especialmente cuando son causadas por el virus sincitial respiratorio o rinovirus.[30]van Meel ER, Mensink-Bout SM, den Dekker HT, et al. Early-life respiratory tract infections and the risk of school-age lower lung function and asthma: a meta-analysis of 150 000 European children. Eur Respir J. 2022 Oct;60(4):2102395.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35487537?tool=bestpractice.com
[31]Makrinioti H, Hasegawa K, Lakoumentas J, et al. The role of respiratory syncytial virus- and rhinovirus-induced bronchiolitis in recurrent wheeze and asthma - a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2022 Mar;33(3):e13741.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35338734?tool=bestpractice.com
La exposición ambiental y la calidad del aire son importantes. El tabaquismo pasivo y activo, incluido el vapeo, conduce a un control del asma deficiente y aumenta los síntomas (p. ej., tos, sibilancias y disnea).[9]Thacher JD, Gehring U, Gruzieva O, et al. Maternal smoking during pregnancy and early childhood and development of asthma and rhinoconjunctivitis - a MeDALL project. Environ Health Perspect. 2018 Apr 12;126(4):047005.
https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/10.1289/EHP2738
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29664587?tool=bestpractice.com
[32]Toelle BG, Xuan W, Peat JK, et al. Childhood factors that predict asthma in young adulthood. Eur Respir J. 2004 Jan;23(1):66-70.
https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/23/1/66.full
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14738233?tool=bestpractice.com
[33]Wang YT, Hu KR, Zhao J, et al. The association between exposure to second-hand smoke and disease in the Chinese population: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Biomed Environ Sci. 2023 Jan 20;36(1):24-37.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36650679?tool=bestpractice.com
[34]Wong M, Forno E, Celedón JC. Asthma interactions between obesity and other risk factors. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2022 Sep;129(3):301-6.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35500862?tool=bestpractice.com
[35]Di Cicco M, Sepich M, Beni A, et al. How E-cigarettes and vaping can affect asthma in children and adolescents. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2022 Apr 1;22(2):86-94.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35197429?tool=bestpractice.com
[36]Rose JJ, Krishnan-Sarin S, Exil VJ, et al. Cardiopulmonary impact of electronic cigarettes and vaping products: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2023 Aug 22;148(8):703-28.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37458106?tool=bestpractice.com
La contaminación del aire exterior se asocia con un mayor riesgo de asma y pérdida de control del asma en los niños.[18]Grandinetti R, Fainardi V, Caffarelli C, et al. Risk factors affecting development and persistence of preschool wheezing: consensus document of the Emilia-Romagna Asthma (ERA) Study Group. J Clin Med. 2022 Nov 4;11(21):6558.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36362786?tool=bestpractice.com
[37]Achakulwisut P, Brauer M, Hystad P, et al. Global, national, and urban burdens of paediatric asthma incidence attributable to ambient NO2 pollution: estimates from global datasets. Lancet Planet Health. 2019 Apr;3(4):e166-78.
https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanplh/article/PIIS2542-5196(19)30046-4/fulltext
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30981709?tool=bestpractice.com
[38]Garcia E, Berhane KT, Islam T, et al. Association of changes in air quality with incident asthma in children in California, 1993-2014. JAMA. 2019 May 21;321(19):1906-15.
https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2733972
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31112259?tool=bestpractice.com
[39]Reddy KRBK, Gupta N, Bhattacharya BG, et al. Impact of air pollution on allergic rhinitis and asthma: consensus statement by Indian Academy of Pediatrics. Indian Pediatr. 2021 Aug 15;58(8):765-70.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33941708?tool=bestpractice.com
[40]Boogaard H, Patton AP, Atkinson RW, et al. Long-term exposure to traffic-related air pollution and selected health outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Environ Int. 2022 Jun;164:107262.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35569389?tool=bestpractice.com
En consonancia con esto, existe un mayor riesgo de asma infantil en las zonas urbanas que en las rurales.[41]Song M, Hwang S, Son E, et al. Geographical differences of risk of asthma and allergic rhinitis according to urban/rural area: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. J Urban Health. 2023 Jun;100(3):478-92.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37191813?tool=bestpractice.com
La exposición a pesticidas se ha asociado con un riesgo dos veces mayor de desarrollar o exacerbar el asma infantil.[42]Rodrigues MB, Carvalho DS, Chong-Silva DC, et al. Association between exposure to pesticides and allergic diseases in children and adolescents: a systematic review with meta-analysis. J Pediatr (Rio J). 2022 Nov-Dec;98(6):551-64.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34982974?tool=bestpractice.com
[43]Gilden RC, Harris RL, Friedmann EJ, et al. Systematic review: association of pesticide exposure and child wheeze and asthma. Curr Pediatr Rev. 2023;19(2):169-78.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35538815?tool=bestpractice.com
Los grupos socioeconómicamente desfavorecidos tienen más probabilidades de vivir en zonas con la peor calidad del aire y peores condiciones de vivienda, al tiempo que están expuestos a mayor estrés psicosocial y tienen dietas más pobres.[44]Burbank AJ, Hernandez ML, Jefferson A, et al. Environmental justice and allergic disease: a work group report of the AAAAI Environmental Exposure and Respiratory Health Committee and the Diversity, Equity and Inclusion Committee. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2023 Mar;151(3):656-70.
https://www.jacionline.org/article/S0091-6749(22)02555-6/fulltext
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36584926?tool=bestpractice.com
Estos factores aumentan el riesgo de asma, pobre control del asma y exacerbaciones agudas.