Complications
Hyperkalemia is common in patients with kidney disease, due to the kidney's inability to excrete potassium from the diet as the estimated glomerular filtration rate declines. Hyporeninemic hypoaldosteronism due to diabetes may be present and increases the risk of hyperkalemia. Most patients with hyperkalemia are asymptomatic, but some may present with muscle weakness.
In advanced chronic kidney disease (CKD), uncontrolled hyperkalemia indicates need for dialysis.
Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is complicated by a triad of inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, and oxidative stress and is associated with marked cardiovascular (CV) morbidity and mortality. Raised albuminuria levels are associated with higher risk of incident stroke, myocardial infarction, and all-cause mortality in patients with type 2 diabetes without overt cardiovascular disease (CVD).[228]
Angina pectoris and CVD are common in DKD, and are reasons to aggressively treat coronary artery disease with stent/coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) and to intensify treatment of DKD.[229]
Aspirin may be considered for the primary prevention of CVD among high-risk individuals, but it should be balanced against an increased risk for bleeding, including thrombocytopathy with low eGFR.[1][47]
Use of a sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitor (if estimated glomerular filtration rate [eGFR] is ≥20 mL/minute/1.73 m²), a glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist, or a nonsteroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist (if eGFR is ≥25 mL/minute/1.73 m²) is recommended in those with type 2 diabetes and chronic kidney disease (CKD) to reduce risk of CV events.[1] Screening for asymptomatic peripheral artery disease is also recommended in all adults who have diabetes with microvascular complications or end-organ damage.[1]
With progressive loss of kidney function, hypertension becomes very difficult to control. Resistant hypertension is defined as blood pressure that remains above target despite the use of three antihypertensive drugs of different classes (typically a calcium-channel blocker, an ACE inhibitor, or an angiotensin-II receptor antagonist, and a diuretic) at optimal doses.
Managing recalcitrant hypertension requires expertise; referral to a specialist in hypertension should be considered.
As in all patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD), diabetic patients with CKD often develop secondary hyperparathyroidism due to hyperphosphatemia and vitamin D deficiency.[230] Treatment includes phosphorus (and protein) restriction, phosphate binders (including calcium carbonate, calcium acetate, sevelamer, lanthanum carbonate) and vitamin D replacement, generally with ergocalciferol in early stages of CKD and calcitriol or an active analog (such as paricalcitol) in later stages.
Compared with people without diabetes, patients with diabetes mellitus are more likely to have adynamic bone disease.[231]
As chronic kidney disease (CKD) progresses, there is a progressive increase in the prevalence and severity of anemia. Iron indices should be obtained and iron deficiency treated.
Erythropoietic stimulating agents (ESAs) (e.g., epoetin alfa, darbepoetin) are indicated to reduce the need for blood transfusions.
Although there is some variability in results among studies, the CHOIR and CREATE trials indicate better outcomes in patients with CKD who have hemoglobin (Hb) values between 11-12 g/dL (i.e., hematocrit between 33% and 36%) compared with values above this range.[232][233] Thus normalization of Hb values is not recommended. However, in another study, improvement in quality of life was noted with near-normal Hb in diabetic patients with CKD, so the issue is not completely settled.[234]
Treatment includes iron compounds (ferrous sulfate, iron dextran, ferric gluconate, iron sucrose) and ESAs. ESAs should be avoided in a Hb >13 g/dL due to increased risk of cardiovascular events.
Intensive treatment of hyperglycemia may result in hypoglycemia because of impaired gluconeogenesis and because insulin and other oral hypoglycemics are poorly cleared by the kidney. One nationwide study of patients with diabetes and end-stage kidney disease found that hypoglycemic crises occurred at a rate of 54 per 1000 person-years.[227] Reduction in antidiabetic treatment is warranted.
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