Enuresis

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th ed. Text Revision, (DSM-5-TR). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2022.

European Association of Urology. Guidelines on paediatric urology. 2023 [internet publication].Full text

European Association of Urology. Guidelines on paediatric urology. 2019 [internet publication].Full text

Nevéus T, Eggert P, Evans J, et al. Evaluation of and treatment for monosymptomatic enuresis: a standardization document from the International Children's Continence Society. J Urol. 2010;183:441-447.Full text  Abstract

Caldwell PH, Codarini M, Stewart F, et al. Alarm interventions for nocturnal enuresis in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 May 4;5(5):CD002911.Full text  Abstract

Longstaffe S, Moffat M, Whalen J. Behavioral and self-esteem changes after six months of enuresis treatment: a randomized, controlled trial. Pediatrics. 2000;105:935-940. Abstract

1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th ed. Text Revision, (DSM-5-TR). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2022.

2. Norgaard JP, van Gool JD, Norgaard JP, et al. Standardization and definitions in lower urinary tract dysfunction in children. International Children's Continence Society. Br J Urol. 1998;81(suppl 3):1-16. Abstract

3. European Association of Urology. Guidelines on paediatric urology. 2023 [internet publication].Full text

4. Adam A, Claassen F, Coovadia A, et al. The South African guidelines on enuresis - 2017. African Journal of Urology. 2018 Mar;24(1):1-13.Full text

5. Jansson UB, Hanson M, Sillén U, et al. Voiding pattern and acquisition of bladder control from birth to age 6 years - a longitudinal study. J Urol. 2005 Jul;174(1):289-93. Abstract

6. Hirasing RA, van Leerdam FJ, Bolk-Bennink L, et al. Enuresis nocturna in adults. Scan J Urol Nephrol. 1997 Dec;31(6):533-6. Abstract

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8. The International Children's Continence Society (ICCS): Hjalmas K, Arnold T, Bower W, et al. Nocturnal enuresis: an international evidence based management strategy. J Urol. 2004;171:2545-2561. Abstract

9. Lackgreen G, Hjalmas K, van Gool J, et al. Nocturnal enuresis: a suggestion for a European treatment strategy. Acta Paediatr. 1999;88:679-690. Abstract

10. Rittig S, Knudsen UB, Sorensen S, et al. Abnormal diurnal rhythm of plasma vasopressin and urinary output in patients with enuresis. Am J Physiol. 1989;256:664-671. Abstract

11. Oredsson AF, Jorgensen TM. Changes in nocturnal bladder capacity during treatment with the bell and pad for monosymptomatic nocturnal enuresis. J Urol. 1998;160:166-169. Abstract

12. Yeung CK, Chiu HN, Sit FK. Bladder dysfunction in children with refractory monosymptomatic primary nocturnal enuresis. J Urol. 1999;162:1049-1055. Abstract

13. Yeung CK, Sit FK, To LK, et al: Reduction in nocturnal functional bladder capacity is a common factor in the pathogenesis of refractory nocturnal enuresis. BJU Int. 2002;90:302-307. Abstract

14. Norgaard JP, Hansen JH, Wildschotz G, et al. Sleep cystometries in children with nocturnal enuresis. J Urol. 1989;141:1156-1159. Abstract

15. Ornitz EM, Russell AT, Hanna GL, et al. Prepulse inhibition of startle and the neurobiology of primary nocturnal enuresis. Biol Psychiatry. 1999;45:1455-1466. Abstract

16. Wolfish N. Sleep arousal function in enuretic males. Scand J Urol Nephrol. 1999;202:24-26. Abstract

17. Kovacevic L, Jurewicz M, Dabaja A, et al. Enuretic children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome: should they see otolaryngology first? J Pediatr Urol. 2013;9:145-150. Abstract

18. von Gontard A, Schaumburg H, Hollman E, et al. The genetics of enuresis: A review. J Urol. 2001;166:2438-2443. Abstract

19. Basha S, Bialowas C, Ende K, et al. Effectiveness of adenotonsillectomy in the resolution of nocturnal enuresis secondary to obstructive sleep apnea. Laryngoscope. 2005;115:1101-1103. Abstract

20. Kalorin CM, Mouzakes J, Gavin JP, et al. Tonsillectomy does not improve bed wetting: results of a prospective controlled trial. J Urol. 2010:184;2527-2531. Abstract

21. Alexopoulos EI, Kostadima E, Pagonari I, et al. Association between primary nocturnal enuresis and habitual snoring in children. Urology. 2006;68:406-409. Abstract

22. Robson WL, Jackson HP, Blackhurst D, et al. Enuresis in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. South Med J. 1997;90:503-505. Abstract

23. Hagglof B, Andren O, Bergstrom E, et al. Self-esteem before and after treatment in children with nocturnal enuresis and urinary incontinence. Scand J Urol Nephrol. 1997;183:79-82. Abstract

24. Hagglof B, Andren O, Bergstrom E, et al. Self-esteem in children with nocturnal enuresis and urinary incontinence: improvement of self-esteem after treatment. Eur Urol. 1998;33(suppl 3):16-19. Abstract

25. Longstaffe S, Moffat M, Whalen J. Behavioral and self-esteem changes after six months of enuresis treatment: a randomized, controlled trial. Pediatrics. 2000;105:935-940. Abstract

26. European Association of Urology. Guidelines on paediatric urology. 2019 [internet publication].Full text

27. Hansen MN, Rittig S, Siggaard C, et al. Intra-individual variability in nighttime urine production and functional bladder capacity estimated by home recordings in patients with nocturnal enuresis. J Urol. 2001;166:2452-2455. Abstract

28. Koff SA. Estimating bladder capacity in children. Urology. 1983;21:248. Abstract

29. Nevéus T, Eggert P, Evans J, et al. Evaluation of and treatment for monosymptomatic enuresis: a standardization document from the International Children's Continence Society. J Urol. 2010;183:441-447.Full text  Abstract

30. Yeung CK, Sreedhar B, Leung VT, et al. Ultrasound bladder measurements in patients with primary nocturnal enuresis: a urodynamic and treatment outcome correlation. J Urol. 2004;171:2589-2594. Abstract

31. O'Regan S, Yazbeck S, Hamberger B, et al. Constipation a commonly unrecognized cause of enuresis. Am J Dis Child. 1986;140:260-261. Abstract

32. Kruse S, Hellstrom AL, Hjalmas K. Daytime bladder dysfunction in therapy-resistant nocturnal enuresis. A pilot study in urotherapy. Scand J Urol Nephrol. 1999 Feb;33(1):49-52. Abstract

33. Caldwell PH, Nankivell G, Sureshkumar P. Simple behavioural interventions for nocturnal enuresis in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Jul 19;(7):CD003637.Full text  Abstract

34. Loening-Baucke V. Urinary incontinence and urinary tract infection and their resolution with treatment of chronic constipation of childhood. Pediatrics. 1997 Aug;100(2 Pt 1):228-32. Abstract

35. Oredsson AF, Jorgensen TM. Changes in nocturnal bladder capacity during treatment with the bell and pad for monosymptomatic nocturnal enuresis. J Urol. 1998 Jul;160(1):166-9. Abstract

36. Caldwell PH, Codarini M, Stewart F, et al. Alarm interventions for nocturnal enuresis in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 May 4;5(5):CD002911.Full text  Abstract

37. Evans J, Malmsten B, Maddocks A, et al.; UK Study Group. Randomized comparison of long-term desmopressin and alarm treatment for bedwetting. J Pediatr Urol. 2011 Feb;7(1):21-9. Abstract

38. Kruse S, Hellstrom AL, Hanson E, et al. Treatment of primary monosymptomatic nocturnal enuresis with desmopressin: predictive factors. BJU Int. 2001 Oct;88(6):572-6. Abstract

39. Rushton HG, Belman AB, Zaontz MR, et al. The influence of small functional bladder capacity and other predictors on the response to desmopressin in the management of monosymptomatic nocturnal enuresis. J Urol. 1996 Aug;156(2 Pt 2):651-5. Abstract

40. Glazener CM, Evans JH. Desmopressin for nocturnal enuresis in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2002;(3):CD002112.Full text  Abstract

41. Hjalmas K, Hanson E, Hellstrom AL, et al. Long-term treatment with desmopressin in children with primary monosymptomatic nocturnal enuresis: an open multicentre study. Swedish Enuresis Trial (SWEET) Group. BJU. 1998 Nov;82(5):704-9. Abstract

42. Nevéus T, Läckgren G, Tuvemo T, et al. Desmopressin resistant enuresis: pathogenetic and therapeutic considerations. J Urol. 1999 Dec;162(6):2136-40. Abstract

43. Bolduc S, Upadhyay J, Payton J, et al. The use of tolterodine in children after oxybutynin failure. BJU Int. 2003 Mar;91(4):398-401. Abstract

44. Geller B, Reising D, Leonard HL, et al. Critical review of tricyclic antidepressant use in children and adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1999 May;38(5):513-6. Abstract

45. Tingelstad JB. The cardiotoxicity of the tricyclics. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1991 Sep;30(5):845-6. Abstract

46. Caldwell PH, Sureshkumar P, Wong WC. Tricyclic and related drugs for nocturnal enuresis in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 Jan 20;2016(1):CD002117.Full text  Abstract

47. Hussiny M, Hashem A, Soltan MA, et al. The safety and efficacy of fluoxetine for the treatment of refractory primary monosymptomatic nocturnal enuresis in children: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. J Urol. 2022 Nov;208(5):1126-34. Abstract

48. The International Children's Continence Society (ICCS): Hjalmas K, Arnold T, Bower W, et al. Nocturnal enuresis: an international evidence based management strategy. J Urol. 2004 Jun;171(6 Pt 2):2545-61. Abstract

49. Huang T, Shu X, Huang YS, et al. Complementary and miscellaneous interventions for nocturnal enuresis in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;(2):CD005230. Abstract

50. Longstaffe S, Moffat M, Whalen J. Behavioral and self-esteem changes after six months of enuresis treatment: a randomized, controlled trial. Pediatrics. 2000;105:935-940. Abstract