References
Key articles
American Diabetes Association. Standards of care in diabetes - 2025. Diabetes Care. 2025 Jan 1;48(suppl 1):S1-352.Full text
Korytkowski MT, Muniyappa R, Antinori-Lent K, et al. Management of hyperglycemia in hospitalized adult patients in non-critical care settings: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2022 Jul 14;107(8):2101-28.Full text Abstract
Pasquel FJ, Lansang MC, Dhatariya K, et al. Management of diabetes and hyperglycaemia in the hospital. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2021 Mar;9(3):174-88.Full text Abstract
McCall AL, Lieb DC, Gianchandani R, et al. Management of individuals with diabetes at high risk for hypoglycemia: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2023 Mar;108(3):529-62.Full text Abstract
Reference articles
1. American Diabetes Association. Standards of care in diabetes - 2025. Diabetes Care. 2025 Jan 1;48(suppl 1):S1-352.Full text
2. Diabetes Canada (Canadian Diabetes Association). Clinical practice guidelines for the prevention and management of diabetes in Canada. 2025 [internet publication].Full text
3. Moghissi ES, Korytkowski MT, DiNardo M, et al. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and American Diabetes Association consensus statement on inpatient glycemic control. Endocr Pract. 2009 May-Jun;15(4):353-69. Abstract
4. Korytkowski MT, Muniyappa R, Antinori-Lent K, et al. Management of hyperglycemia in hospitalized adult patients in non-critical care settings: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2022 Jul 14;107(8):2101-28.Full text Abstract
5. Umpierrez GE, Isaacs SD, Bazargan N, et al. Hyperglycemia: an independent marker of in-hospital mortality in patients with undiagnosed diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002 Mar;87(3):978-82.Full text Abstract
6. Levetan CS, Magee MF. Hospital management of diabetes. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2000 Dec;29(4):745-70. Abstract
7. Finney SJ, Zekveld C, Elia A, et al. Glucose control and mortality in critically ill patients. JAMA. 2003 Oct 15;290(15):2041-7.Full text Abstract
8. Hulkower RD, Pollack RM, Zonszein J. Understanding hypoglycemia in hospitalized patients. Diabetes Manag (Lond). 2014 Mar;4(2):165-76.Full text Abstract
9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diabetes: national diabetes statistics report. May 2024 [internet publication].Full text
10. Zhang Y, Bullard KM, Imperatore G, et al. Proportions and trends of adult hospitalizations with diabetes, United States, 2000-2018. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2022 May;187:109862.Full text Abstract
11. NHS England. National Diabetes Inpatient Audit (NaDIA) - 2019. Nov 2020 [internet publication].Full text
12. American Diabetes Association. Economic costs of diabetes in the U.S. in 2017. Diabetes Care. 2018 May;41(5):917-28.Full text Abstract
13. Umpierrez GE, Pasquel FJ. Management of inpatient hyperglycemia and diabetes in older adults. Diabetes Care. 2017 Apr;40(4):509-17.Full text Abstract
14. Brodovicz KG, Mehta V, Zhang Q, et al. Association between hypoglycemia and inpatient mortality and length of hospital stay in hospitalized, insulin-treated patients. Curr Med Res Opin. 2013 Feb;29(2):101-7. Abstract
15. NICE-SUGAR Study Investigators, Finfer S, Liu B, et al. Hypoglycemia and risk of death in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2012 Sep 20;367(12):1108-18.Full text Abstract
16. Inzucchi SE. Clinical practice: management of hyperglycemia in the hospital setting. N Engl J Med. 2006 Nov 2;355(18):1903-11. Abstract
17. Pasquel FJ, Smiley D, Spiegelman R, et al. Hyperglycemia is associated with increased hospital complications and mortality during parenteral nutrition. Hosp Pract (Minneap). 2011 Apr;39(2):81-8. Abstract
18. National Health Service; National Prescribing Centre. NPC archive item: new Insulin safety guidance issued to reduce wrong dosages. Jul 2010 [internet publication].Full text
19. Lange Ferreira C, Forbes A, Hashim R, et al. Insulin errors and contributing factors affecting people with diabetes in hospital: a scoping review. Int J Nurs Stud. 2025 Jul;167:105074.Full text Abstract
20. National Health Service. National diabetes inpatient audit (NaDIA) - 2017. Mar 2018 [internet publication].Full text
21. ACE/ADA Task Force on Inpatient Diabetes. American College of Endocrinology and American Diabetes Association consensus statement on inpatient diabetes and glycemic control. Endocr Pract. 2006 Jul-Aug;12(4):458-68. Abstract
22. Fernandez, C. J., Rajgopal, R. K., & Pappachan, J. M. (2021). Hypoglycaemia associated with critical illness and hormone deficiencies: a narrative review. Journal of Laboratory and Precision Medicine. 2021Jan 30; (6): 7.Full text
23. Barker HL, Morrison D, Llano A, et al. Practical guide to glucocorticoid induced hyperglycaemia and diabetes. Diabetes Ther. 2023 May;14(5):937-45.Full text Abstract
24. Kornum JB, Thomsen RW, Riis A, et al. Diabetes, glycemic control, and risk of hospitalization with pneumonia: a population-based case-control study. Diabetes Care. 2008 Aug;31(8):1541-5.Full text Abstract
25. Kwon S, Hermayer KL. Glucocorticoid-induced hyperglycemia. Am J Med Sci. 2013 Apr;345(4):274-7. Abstract
26. Farrokhi F, Klindukhova O, Chandra P, et al. Risk factors for inpatient hypoglycemia during subcutaneous insulin therapy in non-critically ill patients with type 2 diabetes. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2012 Sep 1;6(5):1022-9.Full text Abstract
27. Ruan Y, Tan GD, Lumb A, et al. Importance of inpatient hypoglycaemia: impact, prediction and prevention. Diabet Med. 2019 Apr;36(4):434-43. Abstract
28. The Association of British Clinical Diabetologists. JBDS 04 self-management of diabetes in hospital. Feb 2023 [internet publication].Full text
29. The Association of British Clinical Diabetologists. JBDS 20 using technology to support diabetes care in hospital. Mar 2024 [internet publication].Full text
30. Dabelea D, Rewers A, Stafford JM, et al; SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study Group. Trends in the prevalence of ketoacidosis at diabetes diagnosis: the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth study. Pediatrics. 2014 Apr;133(4):e938-45.Full text Abstract
31. Lampasona V, Petrone A, Tiberti C, et al; Non Insulin Requiring Autoimmune Diabetes (NIRAD) Study Group. Zinc transporter 8 antibodies complement GAD and IA-2 antibodies in the identification and characterization of adult-onset autoimmune diabetes: Non Insulin Requiring Autoimmune Diabetes (NIRAD) 4. Diabetes Care. 2010 Jan;33(1):104-8.Full text Abstract
32. Sacks DB, Arnold M, Bakris GL, et al. Guidelines and recommendations for laboratory analysis in the diagnosis and management of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2023 Oct 1;46(10):e151-e199.Full text Abstract
33. Fonseca V. Newly diagnosed diabetes/hyperglycemia in hospitals: what should we do? Endocr Pract. 2006 Jul-Aug;12 Suppl 3:108-11. Abstract
34. Pasquel FJ, Lansang MC, Dhatariya K, et al. Management of diabetes and hyperglycaemia in the hospital. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2021 Mar;9(3):174-88.Full text Abstract
35. van den Berghe G, Wouters P, Weekers F, et al. Intensive insulin therapy in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2001 Nov 8;345(19):1359-67.Full text Abstract
36. Marik PE, Preiser JC. Toward understanding tight glycemic control in the ICU: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Chest. 2010 Mar;137(3):544-51. Abstract
37. Finfer S, Chittock DR, Su SY, et al; NICE-SUGAR Study Investigators. Intensive versus conventional glucose control in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2009 Mar 26;360(13):1283-97.Full text Abstract
38. Singh LG, Satyarengga M, Marcano I, et al. Reducing inpatient hypoglycemia in the general wards using real-time continuous glucose monitoring: the glucose telemetry system, a randomized clinical trial. Diabetes Care. 2020 Nov;43(11):2736-43.Full text Abstract
39. Steil GM, Langer M, Jaeger K, et al. Value of continuous glucose monitoring for minimizing severe hypoglycemia during tight glycemic control. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2011 Nov;12(6):643-8.Full text Abstract
40. Perez-Guzman MC, Shang T, Zhang JY, et al. Continuous glucose monitoring in the hospital. Endocrinol Metab (Seoul). 2021 Apr;36(2):240-55.Full text Abstract
41. Spanakis EK, Urrutia A, Galindo RJ, et al. Continuous glucose monitoring-guided insulin administration in hospitalized patients with diabetes: a randomized clinical trial. Diabetes Care. 2022 Oct 1;45(10):2369-75.Full text Abstract
42. Finn E, Schlichting L, Grau L, et al. Real-world accuracy of CGM in inpatient critical and noncritical care settings at a safety-net hospital. Diabetes Care. 2023 Oct 1;46(10):1825-30.Full text Abstract
43. Voglová Hagerf B, Protus M, Nemetova L, et al. Accuracy and feasibility of real-time continuous glucose monitoring in critically ill patients after abdominal surgery and solid organ transplantation. Diabetes Care. 27 Feb 2024 [Epub ahead of print]. Abstract
44. McCall AL, Lieb DC, Gianchandani R, et al. Management of individuals with diabetes at high risk for hypoglycemia: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2023 Mar;108(3):529-62.Full text Abstract
45. Dumont C, Bourguignon C. Effect of a computerized insulin dose calculator on the process of glycemic control. Am J Crit Care. 2012 Mar;21(2):106-15. Abstract
46. Goldberg PA, Siegel MD, Sherwin RS, et al. Implementation of a safe and effective insulin infusion protocol in a medical intensive care unit. Diabetes Care. 2004 Feb;27(2):461-7.Full text Abstract
47. Adams G, Hunter J, Langley J, et al. Is nurse-managed blood glucose control in critical care as safe and effective as the traditional sliding scale method? Intensive Crit Care Nurs. 2009 Dec;25(6):294-305. Abstract
48. Svensson AM, McGuire DK, Abrahamsson P, et al. Association between hyper- and hypoglycemia and 2 year all-cause mortality risk in diabetic patients with acute coronary events. Eur Heart J. 2005 Jul;26(13):1255-61.Full text Abstract
49. Umpierrez G, Smiley D, Zisman A, et al. Randomized study of basal-bolus insulin therapy in the inpatient management of patients with type 2 diabetes (RABBIT 2 trial). Diabetes Care. 2007 Sep;30(9):2181-6.Full text Abstract
50. Umpierrez GE, Smiley D, Jacobs S, et al. Randomized study of basal-bolus insulin therapy in the inpatient management of patients with type 2 diabetes undergoing general surgery (RABBIT 2 surgery). Diabetes Care. 2011 Feb;34(2):256-61.Full text Abstract
51. Pasquel FJ, Lansang MC, Khowaja A, et al. A randomized controlled trial comparing glargine U300 and glargine U100 for the inpatient management of medicine and surgery patients with type 2 diabetes: Glargine U300 hospital trial. Diabetes Care. 2020 Jun;43(6):1242-8.Full text Abstract
52. Suzuki J, Yamakawa T, Oba M, et al. Efficacy and safety of insulin degludec U100 and insulin glargine U100 in combination with meal-time bolus insulin in hospitalized patients with type 2 diabetes: an open-label, randomized controlled study. Endocr J. 2019 Nov 28;66(11):971-82.Full text Abstract
53. Vellanki P, Bean R, Oyedokun FA, et al. Randomized controlled trial of insulin supplementation for correction of bedtime hyperglycemia in hospitalized patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2015 Apr;38(4):568-74.Full text Abstract
54. Gallo RJ, Lin S, Fang DZ, et al. Inpatient metformin utilization and post-hospitalization clinical outcomes: an observational cohort study. J Gen Intern Med. 2025 Feb 3.Full text Abstract
55. Depczynski B, Kamalakkannan A, Siklosi B, et al. Association between continued metformin use during hospital admission and hospital-acquired complications. Diabet Med. 2024 Oct;41(10):e15353.Full text Abstract
56. Thiruvenkatarajan V, Meyer EJ, Nanjappa N, et al. Perioperative diabetic ketoacidosis associated with sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 inhibitors: a systematic review. Br J Anaesth. 2019 Jul;123(1):27-36.Full text Abstract
57. Singh LG, Ntelis S, Siddiqui T, et al. Association of continued use of SGLT2 inhibitors from the ambulatory to inpatient setting with hospital outcomes in patients with diabetes: a nationwide cohort study. Diabetes Care. 5 Dec 2023 [Epub ahead of print]. Abstract
58. Kindel TL, Wang AY, Wadhwa A, et al. Multisociety clinical practice guidance for the safe use of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists in the perioperative period. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2024 Oct 29:S1542-3565(24)00910-8.Full text
59. American Society of Anesthesiologists. American Society of Anesthesiologists consensus-based guidance on preoperative management of patients (adults and children) on glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists. 2023 [internet publication].Full text
60. Joint British Diabetes Societies for Inpatient Care. The hospital management of hypoglycaemia in adults with diabetes mellitus. Jan 2023 [internet publication].Full text
61. Agus MS, Steil GM, Wypij D, et al; SPECS Study Investigators. Tight glycemic control versus standard care after pediatric cardiac surgery. N Engl J Med. 2012 Sep 27;367(13):1208-19.Full text Abstract
62. Agus MS, Wypij D, Hirshberg EL, et al; HALF-PINT Study Investigators and the PALISI Network. Tight glycemic control in critically ill children. N Engl J Med. 2017 Feb 23;376(8):729-41.Full text Abstract
63. Rickels MR, Ruedy KJ, Foster NC, et al; T1D Exchange Intranasal Glucagon Investigators. Intranasal glucagon for treatment of insulin-induced hypoglycemia in adults with type 1 diabetes: a randomized crossover noninferiority study. Diabetes Care. 2016 Feb;39(2):264-70.Full text Abstract
64. Christiansen MP, Cummins MJ, Prestrelski SJ, et al. A phase 3 comparison of a novel liquid glucagon autoinjector to glucagon emergency kit for the symptomatic relief of severe hypoglycemia. Paper presented at: American Diabetes Association 78th Scientific Sessions. 22-26 Jun 2018. Orlando, Florida, US. Oral presentations: clinical diabetes/therapeutics. Diabetes. 2018 Jul; 67(Supplement 1):304-OR.Full text
65. Levy N, Dhatariya K. Pre-operative optimisation of the surgical patient with diagnosed and undiagnosed diabetes: a practical review. Anaesthesia. 2019 Jan;74 Suppl 1:58-66.Full text Abstract
66. Evans NR, Dhatariya KK. Assessing the relationship between admission glucose levels, subsequent length of hospital stay, readmission and mortality. Clin Med (Lond). 2012 Apr;12(2):137-9.Full text Abstract
67. Haddadin F, Clark A, Evans N, et al. Admission blood glucose helps predict 1 year, but not 2 years, mortality in an unselected cohort of acute general medical admissions. Int J Clin Pract. 2015 Jun;69(6):643-8. Abstract
68. Frisch A, Chandra P, Smiley D, et al. Prevalence and clinical outcome of hyperglycemia in the perioperative period in noncardiac surgery. Diabetes Care. 2010 Aug;33(8):1783-8.Full text Abstract
69. Kotagal M, Symons RG, Hirsch IB, et al. Perioperative hyperglycemia and risk of adverse events among patients with and without diabetes. Ann Surg. 2015 Jan;261(1):97-103.Full text Abstract
70. Krinsley JS. Association between hyperglycemia and increased hospital mortality in a heterogeneous population of critically ill patients. Mayo Clin Proc. 2003 Dec;78(12):1471-8. Abstract
71. Adie SK, Ketcham SW, Marshall VD, et al. The association of glucose control on in-hospital mortality in the cardiac intensive care unit. J Diabetes Complications. 2023 Apr;37(4):108453. Abstract
72. Dhatariya K, Mustafa OG, Rayman G. Safe care for people with diabetes in hospital. Clin Med (Lond). 2020 Jan;20(1):21-7.Full text Abstract
73. The Association of British Clinical Diabetologists. JBDS 14 a good inpatient diabetes service. Jul 2020 [internet publication].Full text
74. Falciglia M, Freyberg RW, Almenoff PL, et al. Hyperglycemia-related mortality in critically ill patients varies with admission diagnosis. Crit Care Med. 2009 Dec;37(12):3001-9.Full text Abstract
75. Bruno A, Gregori D, Caropreso A, et al. Normal glucose values are associated with a lower risk of mortality in hospitalized patients. Diabetes Care. 2008 Nov;31(11):2209-10.Full text Abstract
76. Critchley JA, Carey IM, Harris T, et al. Glycemic control and risk of infections among people with type 1 or type 2 diabetes in a large primary care cohort study. Diabetes Care. 2018 Oct;41(10):2127-35.Full text Abstract
77. Farrugia Y, Mangion J, Fava MC, et al. Inpatient hyperglycaemia, and impact on morbidity, mortality and re-hospitalisation rates. Clin Med (Lond). 2022 Jul;22(4):325-31.Full text Abstract
78. Barmanray RD, Cheuk N, Fourlanos S, et al. In-hospital hyperglycemia but not diabetes mellitus alone is associated with increased in-hospital mortality in community-acquired pneumonia (CAP): a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies prior to COVID-19. BMJ Open Diabetes Res Care. 2022 Jul;10(4):e002880.Full text Abstract
79. Shiffermiller J, Anderson M, Thompson R. Postoperative length of stay in patients with stress hyperglycemia compared to patients with diabetic hyperglycemia: a retrospective cohort study. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2024 May;18(3):556-61.Full text Abstract
80. Turchin A, Matheny ME, Shubina M, et al. Hypoglycemia and clinical outcomes in patients with diabetes hospitalized in the general ward. Diabetes Care. 2009 Jul;32(7):1153-7.Full text Abstract
81. Nirantharakumar K, Marshall T, Kennedy A, et al. Hypoglycaemia is associated with increased length of stay and mortality in people with diabetes who are hospitalized. Diabet Med. 2012 Dec;29(12):e445-8. Abstract
Use of this content is subject to our disclaimer