References
Key articles
Evans L, Rhodes A, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock 2021. Intensive Care Med. 2021 Nov;47(11):1181-247.Full text Abstract
Cartotto R, Johnson LS, Savetamal A, et al. American burn association clinical practice guidelines on burn shock resuscitation. J Burn Care Res. 2024 May 6;45(3):565-89.Full text Abstract
Reference articles
1. Mange K, Matsuura D, Cizman B, et al. Language guiding therapy: the case of dehydration versus volume depletion. Ann Intern Med. 1997 Nov 1;127(9):848-53. Abstract
2. McGee S, Abernethy WB 3rd, Simel DL. The rational clinical examination: is this patient hypovolemic? JAMA. 1999 Mar 17;281(11):1022-9. Abstract
3. Batlle D, Chen S, Haque S. Physiological principles in the clinical evaluation of electrolyte, water, and acid-base disorders. In: Alpern RJ, Caplan MJ, Moe OW, eds. Seldin and Giebisch's the kidney: physiology and pathophysiology. 5th ed. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 2012:2477-512.
4. Di Somma S, Gori, CS, Grandi T, et al. Fluid assessment and management at the emergency department. Fluid overload diagnosis and management. Contrib Nephrol. 2010;164:227-36. Abstract
5. Rose BD, Post TW. Hypovolemic states. In: Clinical physiology of acid-base and electrolyte disorders. 5th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2001:415-46.
6. Lacey J, Corbett J, Forni L, et al. A multidisciplinary consensus on dehydration: definitions, diagnostic methods and clinical implications. Ann Med. 2019 May-Jun;51(3-4):232-51.Full text Abstract
7. Bhave G, Neilson EG. Volume depletion versus dehydration: how understanding the difference can guide therapy. Am J Kidney Dis. 2011 Aug;58(2):302-9.Full text Abstract
8. Hooper L, Abdelhamid A, Attreed NJ, et al. Clinical symptoms, signs and tests for identification of impending and current water-loss dehydration in older people. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 Apr 30;2015(4):CD009647.Full text Abstract
9. Alam NH, Majumder RM, Fuchs GJ. Efficacy and safety of oral rehydration solution with reduced osmolarity in adults with cholera: a randomised double-blind clinical trial. Lancet. 1999 Jul 24;354(9175):296-9. Abstract
10. Uribarri J, Oh MS, Carroll HJ. Salt-losing nephropathy: clinical presentation and mechanisms. Am J Nephrol. 1983 Jul-Aug;3(4):193-8. Abstract
11. Portilla D, Andreoli TE. Disorders of extracellular volume. In: Johnson RJ, Feehally J, eds. Comprehensive clinical nephrology. London: Mosby International; 2007:77-91.
12. Better OS. Impaired fluid and electrolyte balance in hot climates. Kidney Int Suppl. 1987 Aug;21:S97-101. Abstract
13. Standl T, Annecke T, Cascorbi I, et al. The nomenclature, definition and distinction of types of shock. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2018 Nov 9;115(45):757-68.Full text Abstract
14. Antman EM. Hemodynamic disturbances. In: Libby P, Bonow R, Mann D, et al, eds. Braunwald's heart disease: a textbook of cardiac medicine. 8th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders; 2008.
15. Powell-Tuck J, Gosling P, Lobo DN, et al. British consensus guidelines on intravenous fluid therapy for adult surgical patients. February 2018 [internet publication].Full text
16. Ostermann M, Awdishu L, Legrand M. Using diuretic therapy in the critically ill patient. Intensive Care Med. 2024 Aug;50(8):1331-4. Abstract
17. Wu L, Rodriguez M, El Hachem K, et al. Diuretic treatment in heart Failure: a practical guide for clinicians. J Clin Med. 2024 Jul 30;13(15):4470.Full text Abstract
18. Brienza N, Giglio MT, Marucci M, et al. Does perioperative hemodynamic optimization protect renal function in surgical patients? A meta-analytic study. Crit Care Med. 2009 Jun;37(6):2079-90. Abstract
19. Suri SS, Pamboukian SV. Optimal diuretic strategies in heart failure. Ann Transl Med. 2021 Mar;9(6):517.Full text Abstract
20. Shaw BH, Garland EM, Black BK, et al. Optimal diagnostic thresholds for diagnosis of orthostatic hypotension with a 'sit-to-stand test'. J Hypertens. 2017 May;35(5):1019-25.Full text Abstract
21. Freeman R, Wieling W, Axelrod FB, et al. Consensus statement on the definition of orthostatic hypotension, neurally mediated syncope and the postural tachycardia syndrome. Clin Auton Res. 2011 Apr;21(2):69-72.
22. Fedorowski A, Ricci F, Hamrefors V, et al. Orthostatic hypotension: management of a complex, but common, medical problem. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2022 Mar;15(3):e010573.Full text Abstract
23. Deißler L, Wirth R, Frilling B, et al. Hydration status assessment in older patients. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2023 Oct 6;120(40):663-9.Full text Abstract
24. Schwartz JT Jr, Brumback RJ, Lakatos R, et al. Acute compartment syndrome of the thigh. A spectrum of injury. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1989 Mar;71(3):392-400. Abstract
25. Kanlic EM, Pinski SE, Verwiebe EG, et al. Acute morbidity and complications of thigh compartment syndrome: a report of 26 cases. Patient Saf Surg. 2010 Aug 19;4(1):13.Full text Abstract
26. Uchino S, Bellomo R, Goldsmith D. The meaning of the blood urea nitrogen/creatinine ratio in acute kidney injury. Clin Kidney J. 2012 Apr;5(2):187-91.Full text Abstract
27. Evans L, Rhodes A, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock 2021. Intensive Care Med. 2021 Nov;47(11):1181-247.Full text Abstract
28. Trzeciak S, Dellinger RP, Chansky ME, et al. Serum lactate as a predictor of mortality in patients with infection. Intensive Care Med. 2007 Jun;33(6):970-7. Abstract
29. Rossaint R, Afshari A, Bouillon B, et al. The European guideline on management of major bleeding and coagulopathy following trauma: sixth edition. Crit Care. 2023 Mar 1;27(1):80.Full text Abstract
30. Caputo N, Fraser R, Paliga A, et al. Triage vital signs do not correlate with serum lactate or base deficit, and are less predictive of operative intervention in penetrating trauma patients: a prospective cohort study. Emerg Med J. 2013 Jul;30(7):546-50. Abstract
31. Schuetz P, Birkhahn R, Sherwin R, et al. Serial procalcitonin predicts mortality in severe sepsis patients: results from the multicenter procalcitonin MOnitoring SEpsis (MOSES) Study. Crit Care Med. 2017 May;45(5):781-89.Full text Abstract
32. Kip MM, Kusters R, IJzerman MJ, et al. A PCT algorithm for discontinuation of antibiotic therapy is a cost-effective way to reduce antibiotic exposure in adult intensive care patients with sepsis. J Med Econ. 2015;18(11):944-53.Full text Abstract
33. El-Khoury JM, Hoenig MP, Jones GRD, et al. AACC guidance document on laboratory investigation of acute kidney injury. J Appl Lab Med. 2021 Sep 1;6(5):1316-37.Full text Abstract
34. Picano E, Pellikka PA. Ultrasound of extravascular lung water: a new standard for pulmonary congestion. Eur Heart J. 2016 Jul 14;37(27):2097-104.Full text Abstract
35. Brennan JM, Ronan A, Goonewardena S, et al. Handcarried ultrasound measurement of the inferior vena cava for assessment of intravascular volume status in the outpatient hemodialysis clinic. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006 Jul;1(4):749-53. Abstract
36. Shehabi Y, Sterba M, Garrett PM; ProGUARD Study Investigators; ANZICS Clinical Trials Group. Procalcitonin algorithm in critically ill adults with undifferentiated infection or suspected sepsis. A randomized controlled trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2014 Nov 15;190(10):1102-10.Full text Abstract
37. Andriolo BN, Andriolo RB, Salomão R, et al. Effectiveness and safety of procalcitonin evaluation for reducing mortality in adults with sepsis, severe sepsis or septic shock. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Jan 18;1(1):CD010959.Full text Abstract
38. Lam SW, Bauer SR, Fowler R, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of procalcitonin-guidance versus usual care for antimicrobial management in critically Ill patients: focus on subgroups based on antibiotic initiation, cessation, or mixed strategies. Crit Care Med. 2018 May;46(5):684-90. Abstract
39. Phua J, Koay ES, Lee KH. Lactate, procalcitonin, and amino-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide versus cytokine measurements and clinical severity scores for prognostication in septic shock. Shock. 2008 Mar;29(3):328-33.Full text Abstract
40. Becker KL, Snider R, Nylen ES. Procalcitonin assay in systemic inflammation, infection, and sepsis: clinical utility and limitations. Crit Care Med. 2008 Mar;36(3):941-52. Abstract
41. Hooper L, Bunn DK, Abdelhamid A, et al. Water-loss (intracellular) dehydration assessed using urinary tests: how well do they work? Diagnostic accuracy in older people. Am J Clin Nutr. 2016 Jul;104(1):121-31.Full text Abstract
42. Balk RA. Severe sepsis and septic shock: definitions, epidemiology, and clinical manifestations. Crit Care Clin. 2000 Apr;16(2):179-92. Abstract
43. Kemp SF, Lockey RF. Anaphylaxis: a review of causes and mechanisms. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2002 Sep;110(3):341-8.Full text Abstract
44. Kramer GC, Kinsky MP, Prough DS, et al. Closed-loop control of fluid therapy for treatment of hypovolemia. J Trauma. 2008 Apr;64(4 Suppl):S333-41. Abstract
45. Roberts I, Blackhall K, Alderson P, et al. Human albumin solution for resuscitation and volume expansion in critically ill patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011 Nov 9;(11):CD001208.Full text Abstract
46. Lewis SR, Pritchard MW, Evans DJ, et al. Colloids versus crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill people. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Aug 3;(8):CD000567.Full text Abstract
47. Semler MW, Self WH, Wanderer JP, et al. Balanced crystalloids versus saline in critically ill adults. N Engl J Med. 2018 Mar 1;378(9):829-39.Full text Abstract
48. Orbegozo Cortés D, Gamarano Barros T, Njimi H, et al. Crystalloids versus colloids: exploring differences in fluid requirements by systematic review and meta-regression. Anesth Analg. 2015 Feb;120(2):389-402. Abstract
49. Food and Drug Administration. Labeling changes on mortality, kidney injury, and excess bleeding with hydroxyethyl starch products. Jul 2021 [internet publication].Full text
50. Zarychanski R, Abou-Setta AM, Turgeon AF, et al. Association of hydroxyethyl starch administration with mortality and acute kidney injury in critically ill patients requiring volume resuscitation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2013 Feb 20;309(7):678-88.Full text Abstract
51. European Medicines Agency. PRAC recommends suspending hydroxyethyl-starch solutions for infusion from the market. Feb 2022 [internet publication].Full text
52. Kraut JA, Kurtz I. Treatment of acute non-anion gap metabolic acidosis. Clin Kidney J. 2015 Feb;8(1):93-9.Full text Abstract
53. Jung B, Martinez M, Claessens YE, et al. Diagnosis and management of metabolic acidosis: guidelines from a French expert panel. Ann Intensive Care. 2019 Aug 15;9(1):92.Full text Abstract
54. Kellum JA. Acute kidney injury. Crit Care Med. 2008 Apr;36(4 Suppl):S141-5. Abstract
55. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Intravenous fluid therapy in adults in hospital. May 2017 [internet publication].Full text
56. Duggan JM. Personal view: crystalloid transfusion in acute gastrointestinal haemorrhage: is it beneficial? An historical perspective. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2006 Aug 1;24(3):493-6. Abstract
57. Hambly PR, Dutton RP. Excess mortality associated with the use of rapid infusion at a level 1 trauma center. Resuscitation. 1996 Apr;31(2):127-33. Abstract
58. Antonelli M, Levy M, Andrews PJ, et al. Hemodynamic monitoring in shock and implications for management: international consensus conference, Paris, France, 27-28 April 2006. Intensive Care Med. 2007 Apr;33(4):575-90. Abstract
59. Cappell MS, Friedel D. Initial management of acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding: from initial evaluation up to gastrointestinal endoscopy. Med Clin North Am. 2008 May;92(3):491-509. Abstract
60. Guilabert P, Usúa G, Martín N, et al. Fluid resuscitation management in patients with burns: update. Br J Anaesth. 2016 Sep;117(3):284-96.Full text Abstract
61. Ipaktchi K, Arbabi S. Advances in burn critical care. Crit Care Med. 2006 Sep;34(9 Suppl):S239-44. Abstract
62. Cartotto R, Johnson LS, Savetamal A, et al. American burn association clinical practice guidelines on burn shock resuscitation. J Burn Care Res. 2024 May 6;45(3):565-89.Full text Abstract
63. American Burn Association. Advanced burn life support course. Chicago, IL: American Burn Association; 2018.
64. Voldby AW, Brandstrup B. Fluid therapy in the perioperative setting-a clinical review. J Intensive Care. 2016;4:27.Full text Abstract
65. Charache S, Ness PM. Transfusion therapy. In: Stobo JD, Hellmann DB, Ladenson PW, et al, eds. The principles and practice of medicine. 23rd ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Professional; 1996:761-8.
66. Hellstern P, Muntean W, Schramm W, et al. Practical guidelines for the clinical use of plasma. Thromb Res. 2002 Oct 31;107 Suppl 1:S53-7. Abstract
67. Cable CA, Razavi SA, Roback JD, et al. RBC Transfusion strategies in the ICU: a concise review. Crit Care Med. 2019 Nov;47(11):1637-44.Full text Abstract
68. European Medicines Agency. European Medicines Agency recommends changes to the use of metoclopramide. July 2013 [internet publication].Full text
69. Cooper DJ, Walley KR, Wiggs BR, et al. Bicarbonate does not improve hemodynamics in critically ill patients who have lactic acidosis: a prospective, controlled clinical study. Ann Intern Med. 1990 Apr 1;112(7):492-8. Abstract
70. Oddo M, Poole D, Helbok R, et al. Fluid therapy in neurointensive care patients: ESICM consensus and clinical practice recommendations. Intensive Care Med. 2018 Apr;44(4):449-63. Abstract
71. Bagshaw SM, Townsend DR, McDermid RC. Disorders of sodium and water balance in hospitalized patients. Can J Anaesth. 2009 Feb;56(2):151-67. Abstract
72. Kristensen AK, Holler JG, Hallas J, et al. Is shock index a valid predictor of mortality in emergency department patients with hypertension, diabetes, high age, or receipt of β- or calcium channel blockers? Ann Emerg Med. 2016 Jan;67(1):106-13. Abstract
Use of this content is subject to our disclaimer