Cryptococcosis

Chayakulkeeree M, Perfect JR. Cryptococcosis. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2006 Sep;20(3):507-44. Abstract

Panel on Opportunistic Infections in HIV-Infected Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in adults and adolescents with HIV: cryptococcosis. Oct 2024 [internet publication].Full text

World Health Organization. Guidelines for diagnosing, preventing and managing cryptococcal disease among adults, adolescents and children living with HIV. Jun 2022 [internet publication].Full text

Perfect JR, Dismukes WE, Dromer F, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease: 2010 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2010 Feb 1;50(3):291-322.Full text  Abstract

Boulware DR, Meya DB, Muzoora C, et al. Timing of antiretroviral therapy after diagnosis of cryptococcal meningitis. N Engl J Med. 2014 Jun 26;370(26):2487-98.Full text  Abstract

Rolfes MA, Hullsiek KH, Rhein J, et al. The effect of therapeutic lumbar punctures on acute mortality from cryptococcal meningitis. Clin Infect Dis. 2014 Dec 1;59(11):1607-14.Full text  Abstract

1. Chayakulkeeree M, Perfect JR. Cryptococcosis. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2006 Sep;20(3):507-44. Abstract

2. Perfect JR, Casadevall A. Cryptococcosis. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2002 Dec;16(4):837-74. Abstract

3. Pappas PG, Perfect JR, Cloud GA, et al. Cryptococcosis in human immunodeficiency virus-negative patients in the era of effective azole therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2001 Sep 1;33(5):690-9. Abstract

4. Jarvis JN, Harrison TS. Pulmonary cryptococcosis. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2008 Apr;29(2):141-50. Abstract

5. Kidd SE, Hagen F, Tscharke RL, et al. A rare genotype of Cryptococcus gattii caused the cryptococcosis outbreak on Vancouver Island (British Columbia, Canada). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2004 Dec 7;101(49):17258-63.Full text  Abstract

6. Lui G, Lee N, Ip M, et al. Cryptococcosis in apparently immunocompetent patients. QJM. 2006 Mar;99(3):143-51. Abstract

7. Harris JR, Lockhart SR, Debess E, et al. Cryptococcus gattii in the United States: clinical aspects of infection with an emerging pathogen. Clin Infect Dis. 2011 Dec;53(12):1188-95. Abstract

8. Goldman DL, Khine H, Abadi J, et al. Serologic evidence for Cryptococcus neoformans infection in early childhood. Pediatrics. 2001 May;107(5):E66. Abstract

9. Hajjeh RA, Conn LA, Stephens DS, et al. Cryptococcosis: population-based multistate active surveillance and risk factors in human immunodeficiency virus-infected persons. J Infect Dis. 1999 Feb;179(2):449-54. Abstract

10. Rajasingham R, Smith RM, Park BJ, et al. Global burden of disease of HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis: an updated analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2017 Aug;17(8):873-81.Full text  Abstract

11. Dromer F, Mathoulin-Pelissier S, Fontanet A, et al; French Cryptococcosis Study Group. Epidemiology of HIV-associate cryptococcosis in France (1985-2001): comparison of the pre-and post-HAART eras. AIDS. 2004 Feb 20;18(3):555-62. Abstract

12. Dromer F, Mathoulin-Pelissier S, Launay O, et al; French Cryptococcosis Study Group. Determinants of disease presentation and outcome during cryptococcosis: the CryptoA/D study. PLoS Med. 2007 Feb;4(2):e21.Full text  Abstract

13. MacDougall L, Kidd SE, Galanis E, et al. Spread of Cryptococcus gattii in British Columbia, Canada, and detection in the Pacific Northwest, USA. Emerg Infect Dis. 2007 Jan;13(1):42-50.Full text  Abstract

14. Vilchez RA, Fung J, Kusne S. Cryptococcosis in organ transplant recipients: an overview. Am J Transplant. 2002 Aug;2(7):575-80.Full text  Abstract

15. Pappas PG, Alexander BD, Andes DR, et al. Invasive fungal infections among organ transplant recipients: results of the Transplant-Associated Infection Surveillance Network (TRANSNET). Clin Infect Dis. 2010 Apr 15;50(8):1101-11. Abstract

16. Lin X, Heitman J. The biology of the Cryptococcus neoformans species complex. Annu Rev Microbiol. 2006 Oct 13;60:69-105. Abstract

17. Jacobs GJ, Medleau L. Cryptococcus. In: Greene CE, ed. Infectious diseases of the dog and cat. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders; 1998:383-90.

18. Khawcharoenporn T, Apisarnthanarak A, Mundy LM. Non-neoformans cryptococcal infections: a systematic review. Infection. 2007 Apr;35(2):51-8. Abstract

19. Speed B, Dunt D. Clinical and host differences between infections with the two varieties of Cryptococcus neoformans. Clin Infect Dis. 1995 Jul;21(1):28-34. Abstract

20. Panel on Opportunistic Infections in HIV-Infected Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in adults and adolescents with HIV: cryptococcosis. Oct 2024 [internet publication].Full text

21. Friedman GD, Jeffrey Fessel W, Udaltsova NV, et al. Cryptococcosis: the 1981-2000 epidemic. Mycoses. 2005 Mar;48(2):122-5. Abstract

22. Waters LN, Nelson M. Cryptococcal disease and HIV infection. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2005 Dec;6(15):2633-44. Abstract

23. World Health Organization. Guidelines for diagnosing, preventing and managing cryptococcal disease among adults, adolescents and children living with HIV. Jun 2022 [internet publication].Full text

24. Husain S, Wagener MM, Singh N. Cryptococcus neoformans infection in organ transplant recipients: variables influencing clinical characteristics and outcome. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001 May-Jun;7(3):375-81.Full text  Abstract

25. Singh N, Alexander BD, Lortholary O, et al. Pulmonary cryptococcosis in solid organ transplant recipients: clinical relevance of serum cryptococcal antigen. Clin Infect Dis. 2008 Jan 15;46(2):e12-8. Abstract

26. Pastick KA, Nalintya E, Tugume L, et al. Cryptococcosis in pregnancy and the postpartum period: case series and systematic review with recommendations for management. Med Mycol. 2020 Apr 1;58(3):282-92.Full text  Abstract

27. Singh N, Perfect JR. Immune reconstitution syndrome and exacerbation of infections after pregnancy. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Nov 1;45(9):1192-9. Abstract

28. Nakamura S, Izumikawa K, Seki M, et al. Pulmonary cryptococcosis in late pregnancy and review of published literature. Mycopathologia. 2009 Mar;167(3):125-31. Abstract

29. Sirinavin S, Intusoma U, Tuntirungsee S. Mother-to-child transmission of cryptococcus neoformans. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2004 Mar;23(3):278-9. Abstract

30. Awotiwon AA, Johnson S, Rutherford GW, et al. Primary antifungal prophylaxis for cryptococcal disease in HIV-positive people. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Aug 29;(8):CD004773.Full text  Abstract

31. Mfinanga S, Chanda D, Kivuyo SL, et al. Cryptococcal meningitis screening and community-based early adherence support in people with advanced HIV infection starting antiretroviral therapy in Tanzania and Zambia: an open-label, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2015 May 30;385(9983):2173-82. Abstract

32. Rajasingham R, Meya DB, Greene GS, et al. Evaluation of a national cryptococcal antigen screening program for HIV-infected patients in Uganda: a cost-effectiveness modeling analysis. PLoS One. 2019 Jan 10;14(1):e0210105.Full text  Abstract

33. Powderly WG, Finkelstein D, Feinberg J, et al; NIAID AIDS Clinical Trials Group. A randomized trial comparing fluconazole with clotrimazole troches for the prevention of fungal infections in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med. 1995 Mar 16;332(11):700-5.Full text  Abstract

34. McKinsey DS, Wheat LJ, Cloud GA, et al; National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group. Itraconazole prophylaxis for fungal infections in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection: randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Clin Infect Dis. 1999 May;28(5):1049-56. Abstract

35. Chang CC, Harrison TS, Bicanic TA, et al. Global guideline for the diagnosis and management of cryptococcosis: an initiative of the ECMM and ISHAM in cooperation with the ASM. Lancet Infect Dis. 2024 Aug;24(8):e495-512. [Erratum in: Lancet Infect Dis. 2024 Aug;24(8):e485.]Full text  Abstract

36. Pastick KA, Bangdiwala AS, Abassi M, et al. Seizures in human immunodeficiency virus-associated cryptococcal meningitis: predictors and outcomes. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2019 Nov;6(11):ofz478.Full text  Abstract

37. Haddow LJ, Colebunders R, Meintjes G, et al; International Network for the Study of HIV-associated IRIS (INSHI). Cryptococcal immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in HIV-1-infected individuals: proposed clinical case definitions. Lancet Infect Dis. 2010 Nov;10(11):791-802.Full text  Abstract

38. Miller JM, Binnicker MJ, Campbell S, et al. Guide to utilization of the microbiology laboratory for diagnosis of infectious diseases: 2024 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and the American Society for Microbiology (ASM). Clin Infect Dis. 2024 Mar 5 [Epub ahead of print].Full text  Abstract

39. Binnicker MJ, Jespersen DJ, Bestrom JE, et al. Comparison of four assays for the detection of cryptococcal antigen. Clin Vaccine Immunol. 2012 Dec;19(12):1988-90.Full text  Abstract

40. Boulware DR, Rolfes MA, Rajasingham R, et al. Multisite validation of cryptococcal antigen lateral flow assay and quantification by laser thermal contrast. Emerg Infect Dis. 2014 Jan;20(1):45-53.Full text  Abstract

41. Chanock SJ, Toltzis P, Wilson C. Cross-reactivity between Stomatococcus mucilaginosus and latex agglutination for cryptococcal antigen. Lancet. 1993 Oct 30;342(8879):1119-20. Abstract

42. McManus EJ, Jones JM. Detection of a Trichosporon beigelii antigen cross-reactive with Cryptococcus neoformans capsular polysaccharide in serum from a patient with disseminated Trichosporon infection. J Clin Microbiol. 1985 May;21(5):681-5.Full text  Abstract

43. Westerink MA, Amsterdam D, Petell RJ, et al. Septicemia due to DF-2. Cause of a false-positive cryptococcal latex agglutination result. Am J Med. 1987 Jul;83(1):155-8. Abstract

44. Rajasingham R, Boulware DR. Cryptococcal antigen screening and preemptive treatment - how can we improve survival? Clin Infect Dis. 2020 Apr 10;70(8):1691-4.Full text  Abstract

45. Pullen MF, Kakooza F, Nalintya E, et al. Change in plasma cryptococcal antigen titer is not associated with survival among human immunodeficiency virus-infected persons receiving preemptive therapy for asymptomatic cryptococcal antigenemia. Clin Infect Dis. 2020 Jan 2;70(2):353-5.Full text  Abstract

46. Young EJ, Hirsh DD, Fainstein V, et al. Pleural effusions due to Cryptococcus neoformans: a review of the literature and report of two cases with cryptococcal antigen determinations. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1980 Apr;121(4):743-7. Abstract

47. Chang WC, Tzao C, Hsu HH, et al. Pulmonary cryptococcosis: comparison of clinical and radiographic characteristics in immunocompetent and immunocompromised patients. Chest. 2006 Feb;129(2):333-40. Abstract

48. Piyavisetpat N, Chaowanapanja P. Radiographic manifestations of pulmonary cryptococcosis. J Med Assoc Thai. 2005 Nov;88(11):1674-9. Abstract

49. Charlier C, Dromer F, Leveque C, et al; French Cryptococcosis Study Group. Cryptococcal neuroradiological lesions correlate with severity during cryptococcal meningoencephalitis in HIV-positive patients in the HAART era. PLoS One. 2008 Apr 16;3(4):e1950.Full text  Abstract

50. Wehn SM, Heinz ER, Burger PC, et al. Dilated Virchow-Robin spaces in cryptococcal meningitis associated with AIDS: CT and MR findings. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1989 Sep-Oct;13(5):756-62. Abstract

51. Kambugu A, Meya DB, Rhein J, et al. Outcomes of cryptococcal meningitis in Uganda before and after the availability of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2008 Jun 1;46(11):1694-701.Full text  Abstract

52. Bicanic T, Brouwer AE, Meintjes G, et al. Relationship of cerebrospinal fluid pressure, fungal burden and outcome in patients with cryptococcal meningitis undergoing serial lumbar punctures. AIDS. 2009 Mar 27;23(6):701-6. Abstract

53. Meda J, Kalluvya S, Downs JA, et al. Cryptococcal meningitis management in Tanzania with strict schedule of serial lumbar punctures using intravenous tubing sets: an operational research study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014 Jun 1;66(2):e31-6. Abstract

54. Lavi R, Yarnitsky D, Rowe JM, et al. Standard vs atraumatic Whitacre needle for diagnostic lumbar puncture: a randomized trial. Neurology. 2006 Oct 24;67(8):1492-4. Abstract

55. Arendt K, Demaerschalk BM, Wingerchuk DM, et al. Atraumatic lumbar puncture needles: after all these years, are we still missing the point? Neurologist. 2009 Jan;15(1):17-20. Abstract

56. Nath S, Koziarz A, Badhiwala JH, et al. Atraumatic versus conventional lumbar puncture needles: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2018 Mar 24;391(10126):1197-204. Abstract

57. Rochwerg B, Almenawer SA, Siemieniuk RAC, et al. Atraumatic (pencil-point) versus conventional needles for lumbar puncture: a clinical practice guideline. BMJ. 2018 May 22;361:k1920.Full text

58. Ahmed SV, Jayawarna C, Jude E. Post lumbar puncture headache: diagnosis and management. Postgrad Med J. 2006 Nov;82(973):713-6.Full text  Abstract

59. Arevalo-Rodriguez I, Ciapponi A, Roqué i Figuls M, et al. Posture and fluids for preventing post-dural puncture headache. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 Mar 7;(3):CD009199.Full text  Abstract

60. Limper AH, Knox KS, Sarosi GA, et al; American Thoracic Society Fungal Working Group. An official American Thoracic Society statement: treatment of fungal infections in adult pulmonary and critical care patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2011 Jan 1;183(1):96-128.Full text  Abstract

61. Rhein J, Huppler Hullsiek K, Tugume L, et al. Adjunctive sertraline for HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis: a randomised, placebo-controlled, double-blind phase 3 trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2019 Aug;19(8):843-51.Full text  Abstract

62. Botero Aguirre JP, Restrepo Hamid AM. Amphotericin B deoxycholate versus liposomal amphotericin B: effects on kidney function. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 Nov 23;(11):CD010481.Full text  Abstract

63. Meya DB, Williamson PR. Cryptococcal disease in diverse hosts. N Engl J Med. 2024 May 2;390(17):1597-610. Abstract

64. Jarvis JN, Dromer F, Harrison TS, et al. Managing cryptococcosis in the immunocompromised host. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2008 Dec;21(6):596-603. Abstract

65. Lewis JS 2nd, Graybill JR. Fungicidal versus Fungistatic: what's in a word? Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2008 Apr;9(6):927-35. Abstract

66. Pursley TJ, Blomquist IK, Abraham J, et al. Fluconazole-induced congenital anomalies in three infants. Clin Infect Dis. 1996 Feb;22(2):336-40. Abstract

67. Perfect JR, Dismukes WE, Dromer F, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease: 2010 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2010 Feb 1;50(3):291-322.Full text  Abstract

68. Brandt ME, Pfaller MA, Hajjeh RA, et al; Cryptococcal Disease Active Surveillance Group. Trends in antifungal drug susceptibility of Cryptococcus neoformans isolates in the United States: 1992 to 1994 and 1996 to 1998. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2001 Nov;45(11):3065-9.Full text  Abstract

69. Singh N, Lortholary O, Alexander BD, et al. Antifungal management practices and evolution of infection in organ transplant recipients with Cryptococcus neoformans infection. Transplantation. 2005 Oct 27;80(8):1033-9.Full text  Abstract

70. Thursky KA, Playford EG, Seymour JF, et al. Recommendations for the treatment of established fungal infections. Intern Med J. 2008 Jun;38(6b):496-520. Abstract

71. Tenforde MW, Shapiro AE, Rouse B, et al. Treatment for HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Jul 25;(7):CD005647.Full text  Abstract

72. Rajasingham R, Rolfes MA, Birkenkamp KE, et al. Cryptococcal meningitis treatment strategies in resource-limited settings: a cost-effectiveness analysis. PLoS Med. 2012 Sep 25;9(9):e1001316.Full text  Abstract

73. Boulware DR, Meya DB, Muzoora C, et al. Timing of antiretroviral therapy after diagnosis of cryptococcal meningitis. N Engl J Med. 2014 Jun 26;370(26):2487-98.Full text  Abstract

74. Eshun-Wilson I, Okwen MP, Richardson M, et al. Early versus delayed antiretroviral treatment in HIV-positive people with cryptococcal meningitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Jul 24;(7):CD009012.Full text  Abstract

75. Rolfes MA, Hullsiek KH, Rhein J, et al. The effect of therapeutic lumbar punctures on acute mortality from cryptococcal meningitis. Clin Infect Dis. 2014 Dec 1;59(11):1607-14.Full text  Abstract

76. Bicanic T, Harrison T, Niepieklo A, et al. Symptomatic relapse of HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis after initial fluconazole monotherapy: the role of fluconazole resistance and immune reconstitution. Clin Infect Dis. 2006 Oct 15;43(8):1069-73. Abstract

77. Pappas PG, Bustamante B, Ticona E, et al. Recombinant interferon-gamma 1b as adjunctive therapy for AIDS-related acute cryptococcal meningitis. J Infect Dis. 2004 Jun 15;189(12):2185-91. Abstract

78. Segal BH, Kwon-Chung J, Walsh TJ, et al. Immunotherapy for fungal infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2006 Feb 15;42(4):507-15. Abstract

79. Jarvis JN, Meintjes G, Rebe K, et al. Adjunctive interferon-γ immunotherapy for the treatment of HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis: a randomized controlled trial. AIDS. 2012 Jun 1;26(9):1105-13. Abstract

80. Oscarson S, Alpe M, Svahnberg P, et al. Synthesis and immunological studies of glycoconjugates of Cryptococcus neoformans capsular glucuronoxylomannan oligosaccharide structures. Vaccine. 2005 Jun 10;23(30):3961-72. Abstract

81. Perfect JR, Marr KA, Walsh TJ, et al. Voriconazole treatment for less-common, emerging, or refractory fungal infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2003 May 1;36(9):1122-31. Abstract

82. Raad II, Graybill JR, Bustamante AB, et al. Safety of long-term oral posaconazole use in the treatment of refractory invasive fungal infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2006 Jun 15;42(12):1726-34. Abstract

83. Zonios DI, Falloon J, Huang CY, et al. Cryptococcosis and idiopathic CD4 lymphocytopenia. Medicine (Baltimore). 2007 Mar;86(2):78-92. Abstract

84. Boulware DR, Meya DB, Bergemann TL, et al. Clinical features and serum biomarkers in HIV immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome after cryptococcal meningitis: a prospective cohort study. PLoS Med. 2010 Dec 21;7(12):e1000384.Full text  Abstract

85. Sungkanuparph S, Filler SG, Chetchotisakd P, et al. Cryptococcal immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome after antiretroviral therapy in AIDS patients with cryptococcal meningitis: a prospective multicenter study. Clin Infect Dis. 2009 Sep 15;49(6):931-4. Abstract

86. Jenny-Avital ER, Abadi M. Immune reconstitution cryptococcosis after initiation of successful highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2002 Dec 15;35(12):e128-33. Abstract

87. Singh N, Lortholary O, Alexander BD, et al. An immune reconstitution syndrome-like illness associated with Cryptococcus neoformans infection in organ transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis. 2005 Jun 15;40(12):1756-61. Abstract

88. Wiesner DL, Boulware DR. Cryptococcus-related immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS): pathogenesis and its clinical implications. Curr Fungal Infect Rep. 2011 Dec 1;5(4):252-61.Full text  Abstract

89. Atherton RR, Ellis J, Cresswell FV, et al. Ophthalmic signs in Ugandan adults with HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis: a nested analysis of the ASTRO-CM cohort. Wellcome Open Res. 2018 Oct 12;3:80.Full text  Abstract

90. Ahimbisibwe C, Kwizera R, Ndyetukira JF, et al. Management of amphotericin-induced phlebitis among HIV patients with cryptococcal meningitis in a resource-limited setting: a prospective cohort study. BMC Infect Dis. 2019 Jun 26;19(1):558.Full text  Abstract

91. Parkes-Ratanshi R, Wakeham K, Levin J, et al. Primary prophylaxis of cryptococcal disease with fluconazole in HIV-positive Ugandan adults: a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2011 Dec;11(12):933-41. Abstract